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| Saad Zaghloul Egyptian revolutionary and statesman. |
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| Edmund Allenby, British High Commissioner for Egypt (1919-25). |
Egypt was ruled by the Mamluk generals from 1250. They were originally Christian slave soldiers who had elevated to political power and founded a dynasty. The Turkish Ottoman’s power grew over the next centuries and the Ottoman Sultan Selim the Grim conquered Egypt in 1517. It marks the beginning of the modern age in the Arab world. The Ottomans ruled over the greatest Islamic empire of the world, and for the first time since the rise of Islam the Arabs were ruled from a non-Arab capital, Istanbul. But this was long before nationalism entered the world, and the Arabs didn’t seem to mind Ottoman rule. The Ottomans had an efficient bureaucracy, a strong army that protected against foreign threats and gave a lot of freedom to local religious and cultural traditions. The Mamluks kept a lot of their position and power, although they rebelled against Istanbul and sought independence several times over the next centuries.
Napoleon comes
Then in 1798 Napoleon conquered Egypt to block France’s rival Britain from the access over the Mediterranean to India. The French stayed for 3 years and the encounter with their customs and technology was a shock to many Egyptians. The British destroyed the French fleet and forced them out. An Ottoman commander from Albania, Muhammad Ali became governor. He was a strong ruler and made reforms based on European inventions and ideas including a peasant mass army, industrialization, and printing press. His dynasty would rule Egypt until 1952.
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| Ali established a dynasty that ruled Egypt until 1952, and also a modern navy. |
One of his sons Said Pasha, educated in Paris let his former French tutor Ferdinand de Lesseps construct the Suez Canal. Of enormous cost to Egypt and importance to shipping, it made control over Egypt even more important to European powers. The Suez Canal opened under Muhammad Ali’s grandson Ismail Pasha. He took the title Khedive (viceroy) and continued modernization of Egypt with European-style buildings and broad gas-lighted streets in Cairo. In 1866 he created a Consultative Council of Deputies which opened for broader participation of Egyptians in politics. But Ismail Pasha had taken up foreign loans, and was unable to pay them back. Egypt went bankrupt and he sold the Egyptian government’s shares in the Suez Canal Company to the British government at a loss of 75% in1875. Formally Egypt was still an Ottoman province, but Europeans gained more and more influence over Egypt’s economy and politics.
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| The Suez Canal at Ismailia c. 1860. |
Turkish-speaking officers dominated the Egyptian army, looked down on the Egyptians and displaced merits for advancement. An Egyptian Colonel, Ahmad Urabi, found this intolerable and gained support from the landed elite and Egyptian soldiers. After a disastrous invasion of Ethiopia, costs were to be cut in the Army. Egyptians were to be dismissed in 1881, and Urabi and colleagues mutinied, and the Khedive gave in to the demands. This was the first time Egyptian military involved itself in politics, which they have continued to do until today. Although they had the slogan “Egypt for Egyptians” they were not nationalist as they accepted the Ottoman sultan. Urabi became Minister of War, detained Ottoman officers and forced the Prime minister to dismiss European officials. Britain and France got worried and used gunboat diplomacy. Urabi held out. Then Britain sent an invasion force in 1882 and occupied Egypt. Urabi was captured and sent in exile to Ceylon. But the British Lord Cromer relaxed constraints on the press and many newspapers were established in Egypt.
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Women demonstrating during the 1919
revolution.
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Growing
nationalism
Along with the European ideas came nationalism, a
product of the 18th century enlightenment in Europe. Muslim clerics
sought to make an Islamic response to imperialism. Another group worked on a
secular nationalism. Some women also began to ask for more gender equality and
freedom, but they were met with strong resistance from the male-dominated
society. Debates grew, and nationalism slowly grew, but the British did little
to provoke. They mixed little with Egyptians and kept a stable, regular
government and low taxes. Then in 1906 a British pigeon hunting party in Dinshaway
in the Nile delta met resistance from Egyptians who were living of the birds. A
British officer was killed, and they retaliated by executing four Egyptians and
punishing others severely. Newspapers and folk poets distributed the events and
Egyptian reacted strongly to this injustice. Things calmed down, but Dinshaway was not
forgotten.
World War I
During the First World War Britain made Egypt a
Protectorate. The war brought hardships to Egypt and when it was over people
expected rewards for their efforts. The leaders had listened to US President
Wilson’s famous Fourteen
points, including national sovereignty. They wanted to
send a delegation (Wafd) led by Sad Zaghlul to the Versailles Peace conference,
but the British refused. Zaghlul and others were arrested and deported to
Malta. An uprising started and evolved to an Egyptian revolution in 1919 with
sabotage, strikes and demonstrations. Women participated actively forming the
first women’s political bodies in the Arab world. It all turned into the first
nationalist movement in Arab history. Finally the British gave in, released
Zaghlul, and the Wafd went to Versailles. To their disappointment the US delegation
had just accepted the British protectorate. President Wilson’s statement came
to nothing more than words as the European powers resisted. The Egyptian
nationalist didn’t give up but continued with civil disorder and negotiations.
To preserve order and stability the British gave in and accepted Egyptian
sovereignty on 28 February.
I am open to your comments and proposals.
WarmlyBjarte Bjørsvik
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