Georgians vote for independence 1991

The Parliament of the Soviet republic of Georgia decided to hold an independence referendum on 31 March 1991. In the referendum 98.9% of people voted yes to independence. And on 9 April the Georgia’s Supreme Soviet declared independence and elected Zviad Gamsakhurdia president. It was the first time the country became independent since 1921 when Stalin installed a Soviet regime. Georgia has a strategic location between Russia, Turkey and Iran.

Georgia's first President Gamsakhurdia.

But the years of independence have been tumultuous. Gamsakhurdia’s policies triggered a civil war, and a coup ousted him the next year. Former Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze became President. The republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia then tried to break their ties with Georgia and declared independence in 1992-93.  Russia supported the break-away, but most countries have refused it. A new Constitution in 1995 gave the president strong powers, but later Shevardnadze was accused of corruption and election fraud.

Map of Georgia with Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which are de facto independent at the moment.

Shevardnadze lost his position in the 2003 Rose Revolution led by Mikhail Saakashvili.  He won the presidency on a campaign of anti-corruption, and was actively pursuing corruption, but of his political opponents and not his own supporters. Saakashvili sent Georgian forces into South Ossetia in August 2008 to take control of the whole territory. Fighting erupted and Russia quickly responded by invading and occupying the republic and Abkhazia. Russian forces have stayed there since.

March during the Georgian Rose Revolution in the capital Tbilisi 2003.

Georgia is seeking closer relations with Europe and in 2013 signed an Associaction agreement with the European Union. The same agreement brought much controversy in Ukraine the last few months. Georgia is also actively co-operating with NATO, and aspiring to become a member. This is worrying the Russians who see the Caucasus region as an anchor they want neutral or controlled to be safe on their southern flank.  

Military parade on Independence Day 2008. 

 Traditional dress on Independence Day in 2008.

 

Sources and more information

http://www.parliament.ge/files/68_1944_951190_CONSTIT_27_12.06.pdf
http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf
http://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/01/world/soviet-georgians-vote-in-independence-plebiscite.html

I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

British and French at war in Crimea? Yes in 1854

On 28 March 1854 Britain and France declared war on Russia. The war came as a reaction to Russian occupation of Ottoman territory in the Danubian principalities.
 

The Siege of Sevastopol by Franz Roubaud (1904).

Map of the Black Sea and surrounding territory, Crimea in the center. The Ottoman Empire in green.
The Moldavia and Wallachia principalities on the left, north of the Danube River. Russia in orange. 

An article will appear here during the weekend.

Sources and more information
http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_crimean.html
http://www.britishbattles.com/crimean-war/alma.htm
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143040/Crimean-War
http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/on-this-day/march-28/

I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

Obama’s Afghan surge in 2009

On 27 March 2009 President Barack Obama announced the new US strategy for Afghanistan-Pakistan. That included a surge of 4.000 troops to train the Afghan army, and hundreds of civilian US specialists to support development in Afghanistan. He also pledged $1.5 billion annually in aid to the Pakistani government for five years, equalling 1% of Pakistan Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Obama asked other nations “to do their part”, and several NATO countries increased their troop contributions.

During his election campaign, candidate Obama stated in August 2008 “This is not a war of choice. This is a war of necessity. After becoming president he ordered 17.000 combat troops to fight the Taliban and al-Qaeda in February 2009. Later in 2009 another 30.000 troops were committed to go, totalling 51.000 new troops in a “the surge”. And then by in July 2011 they would start to transfer out again. The idea was that the Afghan army would stand on its own and fight the Taliban and deny al-Qaeda the possibility to re-establish bases in Afghanistan. Both the Afghan and Pakistani presidents responded positively to the new strategy. But most analysts knowing Afghanistan called for a political solution and reforming the Afghan state to serve the people better. I still don’t understand why sending more troops made the Norwegian Nobel Committee give Obama the Nobel Peace Prize for 2009. Even Obama seemed puzzled by the decision.

 

President Obama during a joint session of Congress on 24 February 2009.

 

The needs of the Afghan people were not taken much into consideration this time either. They need health, education, safety and justice and a government that is present around the country and well functioning. The corrupt government they had was cheating in elections and providing very little of this. Knowing the Americans would leave and that Taliban was strong and providing some order and justice many choose to accept or support Taliban. The war is going on, and the international forces supposed to leave by 2014.

  Afghan children wait to receive basic medical care and clothing in Khost Province.

Background
After 11 September 2001 the US primarily needed safety for their inhabitants. The invasion of Afghanistan was meant to hinder further attacks by going after al-Qaida. But doing so, they also took on Taliban, which was not involved in 11. Sept. but gave refuge to al-Qaeda. The remnants of al-Qaeda and Taliban escaped over the border to Pakistan, where they continued to get support from parts of the Pakistani military and intelligence agency (ISI).

 

In Afghanistan US forces supported warlords to keep order, but they violently exploited people who experienced the new rule as gross injustice. Taliban regrouped and came back and found willing supporters. In a creeping mission the US and international community increased the goals of the initial invasion to build a new society. But the efforts were not well co-ordinated and took little notice of the needs of the Afghans. A corrupt government with little presence in the countryside lost support. And NATO forces were increasingly seen as invaders and supporters of a corrupt government.

Sources and more information

http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-on-a-New-Strategy-for-Afghanistan-and-Pakistan
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/27/obamas-afghanistan-plan-4_n_179892.html
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/20/us/obamas-journey-to-reshape-afghanistan-war.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

I am open to your comments and proposals.
Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty

On 26 March 1979 an Egypt-Israeli Peace Treaty was signed by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat. US President Jimmy Carter, who had mediated in the negotiations, witnessed the signing in Washington D.C. Israel promised to withdraw its forces from the Sinai (which they occupied in the 1967 Six Day war), Egypt would open the Suez Canal to Israeli ships and establish diplomatic relations with Israel. The parties fulfilled these provisions. The US promised Egypt support and has paid about $1.5 billion annually in military aid and subsidies.



Anwar el-Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Menachem Begin at the White House on 26 March 1979.

Background

Getting back Sinai was what Sadat had planned for years and now achieved. Carter was open for talks, and after becoming US President in 1977 he met with Begin, Sadat and other Middle East leaders. In November 1977 Sadat went to the Israeli Parliament Knesset and gave a historical speech. Sadat and Begin were invited by Carter to negotiate at the Presidential retreat Camp David in Maryland. They accepted and stayed for 13 days in September 1978. On the last day they made a framework agreement that resulted in the peace treaty. Begin and Sadat together were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1978.

Results

But the agreement was unpopular in both Egypt and the Arab world, and came with a heavy cost. Sadat’s popularity fell dramatically, also because of deep economic problems and he ordered repressive measures jailing over 500 people. Egypt was thrown out of the Arab League and Sadat was assassinated at a military parade on 6 October 1981 by Muslim extremists in the army. A Peace prize didn’t stop Begin from invading Lebanon in 1982 to drive out the Palestinians, and try to force Lebanon to make a peace treaty with Israel. They succeeded in that, but the Israeli army oversaw the Lebanese Phalangists massacre hundreds of Palestinian refugees in Sabra and Shatila. Criticism was massive, and Begin resigned the year after. In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League and its headquarters moved back to the bank of the Nile.

Recent developments

Still the agreements have been kept even though the Sinai and Gaza strip has been through war and violence the last years. After the Arab Spring Sinai was in turmoil and Egypt wanted to strengthen the security and military force there. The treaty came with some limitations to how many troops Egypt could have in Sinai, and after President Morsi said he wanted to amend the agreements after he came to power in August 2012. But Egyptian Defence Minister Abdel Fattah el-Sisi told Israeli Defence Minister Ehud Barak later that Cairo was committed to keep the agreement.
 Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter and Anwar Sadat at Camp David in 1978.

Sources and more information
http://www.mfa.gov.eg/Lists/Treaties%20DB/Attachments/645/Peace%20Treaty_en.pdf
http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/israel-egypt%20peace%20treaty.aspx
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/91061/Camp-David-Accords/284489/A-framework-for-peace
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515786/Anwar-el-Sadat
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58583/Menachem-Begin
http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE78E5NT20110915
http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/egypt-s-muslim-brotherhood-fate-of-israel-peace-treaty-may-be-decided-in-referendum-1.404889
http://www.haaretz.com/misc/article-print-page/elbaradei-u-s-egypt-in-secret-talks-on-fate-of-israel-peace-treaty-1.403913?trailingPath=2.169%2C2.216%2C2.217%2C
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9504601/Mohammed-Morsi-vows-to-respect-Egypt-Israel-peace-treaty.html
http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-new-triangle-of-egypt-israel-and-hamas
http://www.timesofisrael.com/barak-and-egyptian-counterpart-reportedly-come-to-terms-over-sinai-offensive/

I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

Arab summit amid increasing divisions

Today on 25 March the heads of state of the 22 Arab League countries meet in Kuwait for a two day summit. Several issues including developments in Egypt and Syria divide them. Three members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) withdrew their ambassadors from another member Qatar on 6 March. They are against Qatar’s support of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. Saudi Arabia fears the changes of regime brought by the Arab spring, while Qatar says its policy is “openness towards all”.

Crown Prince Salman of Saudi Arabia

The Emir of Kuwait al-Sabah has been mediating the conflict and opened today’s meeting stroke a conciliatory tone and asked for unity.  But the parties seem to be entrenched in their positions; Qatar gave the Muslim Brotherhood government under President Morsi $8 billion in aid and loans. But after the ousting of Morsi the Egyptian government returned $2 billion in aid, even though they desperately need them and will not send its ambassador back to Doha. Saudi Arabia and the UAE on the other hand pledged the new Egyptian government that followed the coup against Morsi $12 billion. Saudi Arabia has followed the new Egyptian government in calling the Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group.

Emir of Qatar Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani

 



Syria and Iraq
The Arab League countries also have war very different views on the war in Syria. Iraq, Algeria and the Lebanese Hezbollah support the al-Assad regime in some ways. Saudi Arabia, Qatar and other countries are favouring different rebel groups. The Iraqi Prime Minister al-Maliki has also accused Saudi Arabia and Qatar of supporting rebels in the western Anbar province of Iraq in a very violent campaign. Saudi Arabia and Qatar have rejected the claims.
 

 Population Density of the Arab World showing the concentration of population in dark green.

Sources and more information
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/arab-league-summit-201432552716861683.html
http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/25/us-arabs-summit-idUSBREA2O0GB20140325
http://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2366913&language=en

I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

 

Damascus taken? Yes in 1401 by Mongols

On 24 March 1401 the Mongols led by Timur pillaged Damascus, right after taking Aleppo. The Umayyad mosque was destroyed by fire. Skilled artisans were deported to his capital Samarkand in today’s Uzbekistan in an attempt to make it the most splendid city in Asia.

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.

Timur, in the west known as Tamerlane, had proclaimed himself restorer of the Mongol empire around 1370. From his base in Samarkand where he spent little time, he defeated other Mongol khans. He supported the Mongol khan of Crimea against the Russians. The Russians had been conquered by Genghis Khan and the Golden Horde and paid tribute to the Mongols. Today’s Tatars of Crimea are their descendants. Timur supported the Golden Horde and took Moscow, then moving west he defeated the Lithuanians. In 1383 he conquered Persia, Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and India. But he was not able to put an efficient administration to rule, so often after he left a conquered territory, revolts broke out. He usually came back, destroyed, massacred and built towers of skulls.

Timur defeating the Sultan of Egypt.     



 

Map of Timur’s empire at his death. 

 

After Damascus Timur captured Baghdad and defeated and captured the Ottoman ruler Bayezid near Ankara. He prepared for an expedition to China, but fell ill and died in 1405. This part of the Mongol empire was divided between his sons and one of them, Shah Rokh, kept most intact for a few decades, and then it fell apart. One of Timur’s descendants, Babur took Kabul and moved on to India and established the dynasty of the Great Mughals. They ruled over much of India until the British came.

Registan, a public square in the heart of Samarkand.

 

Timur was put to rest in a beautiful mausoleum in Samarkand; the tomb was opened for the first time in 1941 by the Soviets. They found a tall man, lame in both right limbs. Opening his tomb was supposed to be a bad omen, and later that year Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union.

 

Sources and more information

http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596358/Timur

http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143010/Crimea/314881/History

http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus/25659/Islamic-city

http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596414/Timurid-dynasty

I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly

Bjarte Bjørsvik

 

 



Decision to exterminate Armenians

The Young Turk Central Committee decided to exterminate the Armenians between 20 and 25 March 1915. This takes place during World War I. The Armenians are forcibly deported to Syria, many die en route, and others are massacred. Estimates of the total death numbers vary from 200.000 (Turkish) to 2 million (Armenian). European and US scholars have estimated 600.000 died, more recent studies estimates close to 1 million. The events and facts are still studied and disputed.

Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are marched through Harput to a prison April 1915.

Sources and more information

http://www.massviolence.org/The-Extermination-of-Ottoman-Armenians-by-the-Young-Turk-Regime?decoupe_recherche=Armenia&artpage=4-17
http://www.massviolence.org/spip.php?page=recherche&recherche=Armenia
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/17/arts/television/17stan.html?_r=0&ei=5090&en=42703f4960edef66&ex=1302926400&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=print
http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/1915/bryce/a14.htm

 

I am open to your comments and proposals.
Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik

Tunisia gets independence 1956

On 20 March 1956 France grants Tunisia independence. Habib Bourguiba becomes Prime Minister. On 25 July the next year a republic is declared and Bourguiba elected President. Very popular during the first years he stays in the position until 1987. He implements his ideas of secular rule, recognition of women’s rights and extending education. The military is under civilian rule, and after experimenting with socialism an export-oriented policy is implemented.

His foreign policy is pragmatic and Tunisia co-operates with France, the US, Arab countries as well as the Soviet bloc. He becomes more and more authoritarian , and repress liberals and the Islamic movement. Finally in 1987 his Prime Minister Ben Ali makes a constitutional coup, removes him declaring him mentally unfit and takes over the presidency. Ben Ali also promises political liberalization, but wins elections by 99% and all seats in the parliament.  The Arab Spring of 2011 sweeps him away and into exile. Finally a more democratic Tunisia has seen the light 55 years after independence.

Habib Bourguiba giving a speech in the city of Bizerte, 1952.

Background
Tunisia became a French protectorate in 1881. Formally a Tunisian bey (king) ruled, but the real power lay with the French resident general and administration. Italian and French settlers bought up the most fertile lands and started cultivation for export. Phosphate was extracted from mines. In the 1890s a group called Jeunes Tunisiens (Young Tunisians), inspired by the Young Turks, started to ask for reforms and more Tunisian participation in government. They ran Le Tunisien  newspaper. In 1911 they protested against the Italian invasion of Libya and the French exiled their leaders. After World War I they came back and created a political party Destour (Constitution) in 1920 demanding the reinstatement of the 1861 constitution Tunisia had before the French takeover. The bey supported this, but the French resident general surrounded the palace and the demand was withdrawn. 

 

 

Geography of Tunisia

Habib Bourguiba comes
Even modest requests for reforms were turned down and this radicalized some of the nationalists. A young lawyer Habib Bourguiba came back from studies in Paris in 1927. He was a Destour member, but broke as he saw its methods as too weak and formed a new party Neo-Destour in 1934. He organized a mass party with support all over the country and from different groups including the unions, women and students. The French continued to repress the nationalists and Bourguiba was imprisoned and exiled. During World War II France was occupied by Germany and a collaborationist government in Vichy continued to rule the colonies and protectorates. The Tunisian bey Moncef tried to stay neutral, but after the Allied invasion of Tunisia in 1943 he was removed many nationalists were arrested and Neo-Destour prohibited. Bourguiba went into exile in Cairo to get foreign support. Farhat Hached, the leader of the nationalist labour union UGTT, was assassinated by a French group in 1952. Mass demonstrations followed both in Tunisia and Morocco. In 1954 France lost Indo-China (Vietnam) and wanted to concentrate their efforts on keeping Algeria. So the French government promised complete autonomy to both Morocco and Tunisia. Bourguiba came back from exile, and when full independence was given in 1956 he was chosen prime minister. The last bey Muhammad VIII al-Amin was deposed and the country declared a republic in 1957.

Labour leader Farhat Hached

Bey (King) Muhammad VIII al-Amin

Sources and more information
The Arabs, Eugene Rogan, Basic Books New York 2009, pp. 294-295.
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/609229/Tunisia/46621/The-protectorate-1881-1956 I am open to your comments and proposals.

Warmly
Bjarte Bjørsvik